İskender, Ottoman Sultan

"Not unlike the conquering Sultan. By now, you must have a sense of his rhythm which many here would envy.  He is, to us, an enigmatic figure."

- Empress Apollonia to Shah Mehdi 1

İskender I (Ottoman Turkish: اسكندر اول; Modern Turkish: I, İskender; 30 October 1413 – 31 October 1483), commonly called as İskender the Conqueror (Turkish: Fatih Sultan İskender), has reigned as sultan of the Ottoman Empire since November 1419. İskender I has principally presided over a period of vast Ottoman territorial expansion and, six years prior, fulfilled the dynasty's longtime aspiration of capturing the "Red Apple." In conquering Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), the sultan ended the Byzantine Empire and opened the door to further expansion westward. He is popularly recognized as a quintessential warrior-sultan whose reign has insofar featured consolidation of Ottoman power but also unprecedented positive relations with European countries, especially during historic summits in Florence (1455) and Lisbon (1458). While his personal writings remain private, he is nonetheless also known to be a patron of arts and knowledge with a profound investment in contemporary cultural production and religious scholarship.

Early life
Few anticipations accompanied the birth of the sultan’s youngest son, born to his newest consort during his reign’s twilight years. He received his name as tradition dictated—as a gift, bestowed by his father, pronounced on the fourth day of life—yet many whispered Mahidevran Sultan herself proffered the name. This, İskender, an obvious nod to the fabled conqueror of the world. It confirmed that she was delusional, in the eyes of some; Mahidevran took her fleeting favoritism as a permanent pedestal, and even such a simple rumor inflamed the raging mockery which encircled her. For the first few years of his life, İskender lived as other şehzades discounted from the open succession competition by birth order's disadvantages; he was to received a fine education nonetheless, covering a spectrum of topics ranging from humanistic inquiry and the sciences to religious scholarship. Despite Mahidevran's insistence that her son be prepared for authority from the start, his early childhood was unremarkable aside from the close relationship with his younger sister, Hürrem Sultan.

Yet, by a cruel turn of fate, İskender received the opportunity to exceed even Mahidevran's illusory expectations. The plague’s latest roiling wave hit the palace hard in 1419, striking down the sultan’s adult sons one after another. Sickness ravaged the empire, drawing dangerously near to its heart, until at last the sultan himself succumbed. Still, anxious stares did not yet affix themselves to İskender. He was barely six years old at the time, though a somber child even then; more important, news arrived that the remaining şehzade, anticipating his elderly father would not survive, had taken the road to Edirne days earlier.

Regency
İskender ascended the throne in 1419, at the age of six, following one of the worst waves of plague since 1398. As the youngest son of eight, he was not expected to succeed his father at any point. It is widely speculated that Mahidevran Sultan had plotted prior to 1419 to overcome these odds, but little evidence exists to corroborate this story beyond rumors easily traced to now-defeated rivals. Still, the circumstances of several şehzades’ deaths perpetuated allegations that Mahidevran saw opportunity in the wave's high mortality rate. Most controversially, one prince remained alive when Sultan Bayezid first fell ill, yet reports from his household in Amasya suggested he in fact contracted the illness before departing for Edirne to be present for the sultan's impending death. Some have suggested Mahidevran orchestrated an assassination to prevent Şehzade Mehmed from succeeding Bayezid, but the truth remains unclear. Thus, it is only officially acknowledged that Mahidevran—and İskender by extension—benefited from luck. Bayezid died late in the evening on November 19th, and the Imperial Divan acted quickly to established a regency for his only surviving son. While his death was concealed for several days, İskender's ascent at the age of six was formalized nine days later, when he was girded with the Sword of Osman at Edirne's palace complex.

Mahidevran Sultan subsequently dominated the Ottoman Sultanate until approximately 1432, after which a government purge effectively ended her de facto reign. This sweeping series of reforms, replacements, and even seizures of property and expulsions severely circumscribed the Valide Sultan's influence but did not permanently restrict her influence. Mahidevran had acted as the de facto regent prior to this point. While viziers such as Mahmud Çelebi and Ahmed Pasha of Ioannina acted as counterbalances, they were aligned with Mahidevran’s cabal of supporters, a faction which emerged alongside her rise to power in the 1410s. Thus, the sultanate’s government appeared moderate but was, in practice, loyal to Mahidevran throughout the thirteen year regency. The most prominent of these statesmen were removed from power by İskender in 1432 and 1433. In 1432, the hitherto Mamluk-controlled Hejaz became Ottoman territory, and this experienced emboldened the young sultan upon his return to Edirne, at which point he fully seized from his mother the reins of power. Neutral actors replaced her most loyal allies, though sources report they were trusted by Bayezid I yet marginalized during the regency period. The primary consistency between Mahidevran’s aspirations as articulated by her associates and the subsequent bent of Ottoman policy in the 1430s and 1440s was a focus on expansion. İskender increased regency period military reforms, and Mahidevran acted as sovereign in his place during successive military campaigns and absences, at least until 1455 when Şehzade Murad took over this role.

Military endeavors
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First Mamluk War (1432)
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Ottoman-Venetian Conflict (1435)
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Balkans Conflicts (1436-1450)
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Conquest of Constantinople (1453)
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Second Mamluk War (14??)*
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Diplomacy and foreign affairs
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Intercontinental summits (1455-)
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Florentine Summit (1455)
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Lisbon Summit (1458)
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Parisian Summit (145)
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Relationships abroad
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Emir Hisham of Córdoba
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Apollonia I, Holy Roman Empress
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Queen Isabel of England
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Lorenzo de Medici, Grand Duke of Florence
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Crown Prince Rudolf of Russia and Tsar Ivan the Terrible
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Cultural production and patronage
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Literary works
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Religion and charity
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Personality and appearance
Leadership—a craft equal parts persuasion and violence, exemplified by Mahidevran and, in time, practiced by himself—molded İskender into a complex, even contradictory figure. His private nature is one side, known by few to be romantic and magnanimous, even quixotic at times; it parallels a resplendent public presence described as august, as staid, as unrelenting. Such a personality lends itself well to diplomacy and combat alike, but even more useful is his insistence upon learning and listening. He yields to the expertise of trustworthy and loyal advisors and seeks to exemplify a style of measured and deliberate rule. Despite this general disposition, İskender's inherent nature is fundamentally one of passion and intensity. Though consciously suppressed, this temperament reveals itself in occasional displays witnessed by those closest to him, whether in affection or through his rarely-seen but substantial flashpoints of anger. He is nonetheless usually characterized as reserved, self-assured, and notably devout. The court's continued adherence to a rule of silence further suggests the sultan’s preference for solemnity and reflection; his infrequent public appearances and limited circle of interlocutors further cultivate this intentional if somewhat deceptive mystique.

Family and personal life
İskender has one foreign consort, Branimira of Croatia, whom he married as part of a diplomatic agreement with Mihovil, Duke of Dalmatia, and Prince Nicoleto of Croatia. At the time of the marriage, Nehir Sultan’s son, Murad, was the only potential heir. Though a political match during a time when foreign brides were growing less common, Branimira became a noteworthy figure in dynastic politics upon the birth of her son, Kasim, shortly after the marriage. Kasim himself stands to become a polarizing figure in Ottoman politics as many believed him to be a viable alternative to Murad.

Consorts

 * Hiranur Sultan
 * Haseki Nehir Sultan
 * Branimira of Croatia
 * tba *

Sons

 * Şehzade Murad (born May 15, 1433)
 * Şehzade Kasim

Daughters

 * _______ Sultan (born 1434) *
 * _______ Sultan (born 1435)
 * Mihrimah Sultan (born June 13, 1438)
 * Ilaldi Sultan (born 1440)
 * Ayşe Sultan (born 1441)
 * Hafsa Sultan (born 1445)
 * Emine Sultan (born 1445)
 * Sittişah Sultan (born 1447)
 * Beyhan Sultan (born 1450)
 * Şirin Sultan (born 1453)
 * Hümaşah Sultan (born 1455)